Dangerous or Delightful? Music-Induced Nostalgia's Effect on Emotions and Mentality

Author's note: My first few posts will be old pieces of writing! (This research paper included; it's from 2019.) Any "past" piece will not be reviewed or re-edited because I want to spend my time revising current works instead of past pieces. While I recognize that my past (and probably current) writing contains mistakes, I hope that the research, themes, ideas, or opinions presented in my writing will spark others' interest and prompt them to conduct their own research and self-reflection!

The success of Netflix’s Stranger Things. “Throwback Thursdays” and other social media posts that glorify the past. Polaroids, scrunchies, and chunky white 90’s tennis shoes. Millennials seem to be obsessed with nostalgia; their heightened interest apparent in almost any area of consumer goods (Cosslett). While nostalgia’s appeal is subjective, its most attractive quality is its wistful tenderness. As Canadian writer Robert J. Wiersema put it, “Nostalgia is, by its very nature, bittersweet, the happiest memories laced with melancholy. It’s that combination, that opposition of forces, that makes it so compelling. People, places, events, times: we miss them, and there’s a pleasure in the missing and a sadness in the love.” There’s something sweet about remembering, no matter the negative emotional tone or context of memory.

Current music trends exemplify the preference of nostalgia's sweetness. One journalist for The Independent recently commented on the upsurge of nostalgia in music, noting how pop singer Charlie XCX’s song “1999” laments: “I just wanna go back, sing, ‘hit me, baby, one more time’...Wanna go back, wanna go…Nike Airs, all that…CD, old Mercedes.” Nostalgia’s popularity is apparent and powerful when included in music, but is obsession having unseen effects on younger generations? Millennials are fascinated with nostalgia, but they also have higher levels of anxiety attacks, depression diagnoses, and suicidal thoughts than any other age group (Perry). Could nostalgic yearning be hurting millennials and other generations?

There is still more research to be conducted on music-induced nostalgia because it is relatively young, and began only three decades ago. However, there is still an impressive and credible amount of information on this topic. Some studies show a dark side of nostalgia, suggesting that it has the potential to promote dangerous dysphoric states or depression relapse (Segal). Conversely, significantly more studies prove the productive and resourcefulness of music-induced nostalgia. Dr. Liila Taruffi, an interdisciplinary music researcher with a Ph.D. in psychology and the neuroscience of music, recently discovered that nostalgia creates a mental state in which playful imagination, emotional regulation, and empathy can occur. It can also increase overall peacefulness and self-confidence. In an era where members of society lack emotional stability and struggle with mental issues, music-evoked nostalgia may help alleviate emotional problems.

As previously stated, “Nostalgia is a bittersweet yearning for the past. It’s sweet because it allows us to momentarily relive good times; it’s bitter because we recognize that those times can never return” (“Nostalgia and Emotional Tone”). While nostalgia is commonly characterized by its bittersweet taste, it can be divided into two different types: personal nostalgia and historical nostalgia. Personal nostalgia refers to reminiscing over one’s past, and historical nostalgia is longingly thinking of or preferring a past era (“Nostalgia and Emotional Tone”).

While some popular news sources claim that millennials are especially nostalgic, there is no physical data to prove that this generation is more nostalgic than others. Furthermore, nostalgia usually occurs “during periods of transition” (“The Psychological Benefits of Nostalgia”), which are frequent in teenage years, but not specific to any age. Transitions can occur during any phase of life; nostalgia is universal and ageless.

Nostalgia is also versatile in its triggers. Its most powerful trigger is “dysphoric states such as negative mood and loneliness” (Sedikides et al 1). When experiencing this state, people often turn to music: “People report choosing to listen to sad music more often when they are alone, when they are in emotional distress or feeling lonely, [or] when they are in reflective or introspective” (Sachs et al). Sad, nostalgic music is clearly a common source of consolation for people experiencing emotional turbulence.

However, music does not have to be unhappy to be nostalgic. Dr. Krystine I. Batcho, a licensed psychologist with significant research experience in nostalgia, was able to define the traits of nostalgic music. The main body of her study provided participants with surveys to rate 6 sets of lyrics, according to their overall “happiness, sadness, anger, nostalgia, meaning, liking, and relevance” (“Nostalgia and Emotional Tone”). Her results claim that nostalgic lyrics can be “characterized by bittersweet reverie, loss of the past, identity, [or] meaning” (“Nostalgia and Emotional Tone”). In addition to discovering that nostalgic lyrics involve bittersweet reverie or loss of the past, identity, or meaning, Batcho proved that happy lyrics were also considered (personally) nostalgic. In fact, happy lyrics were considered more meaningful and relatable than sad lyrics (“Nostalgia and Emotional Tone”). While bittersweet reverie or loss can be considered melancholy, Batcho’s findings clarify that nostalgia can be brought about by cheerful lyrics, too.

Nostalgic music’s overall tone can affect meaningfulness, which suggests that nostalgia is an individual experience. One study determined that nostalgia is subjective and its benefits vary according to different personalities. Cognitive neuroscientist Frederick S. Barrett researched differences in brain responses to nostalgia. Participants listened to 30 short musical excerpts, and then rated, on a scale of 1-5, “the degree to which they experienced nostalgia, happiness, sadness, autobiographical salience, arousal, and stimulus familiarity while listening to each excerpt” (Barrett and Janata). Following this, a self-rated survey measuring proneness to nostalgia was also administered, along with a survey to “assess behavioral traits related to six primary neural affective systems (play, seek, care, fear, anger, and sadness system)” (Barrett and Janata). The sadness trait was especially important in this study because it indicated different reactions to nostalgia within the brain (Barrett and Janata). Echo planar images provided researchers with pictures of the different cognitive processes of each participant as they interacted with their study questions. These radiological images provided key information about prefrontal, temporal, limbic, and paralimbic regions of the brain, which control functions such as emotion, behavior, motivation, and overall personality. By examining and comparing the radiological pictures of participants, researchers concluded that “the specific neural response to nostalgic experience...vary widely between individuals” (Barrett and Janata). Thus, the effects of nostalgia, good or bad, will differ according to each individual. This conclusion makes nostalgic experience sound too ambiguous. However, music-induced nostalgia deserves attention because an additional study pinpointed which personality traits are more prone to enjoying nostalgic music.

In 2011, a study used the “Big Five Inventory”, the Interpersonal Reactivity Index, and several survey questions regarding the emotional intensity of music to determine which personalities react better to nostalgia. The Big Five Inventory, created and first used by Oliver P. John and Sanjay Srivastava in 1999, is specifically “used to assess the personality trait Openness to Experience”, a trait commonly associated with nostalgia (Vuoskoski 311). The Interpersonal Reactivity Index, invented by Mark H. Davis in 1980, measures “four separate aspects of the global concept of Empathy: Fantasy, Perspective-taking, Empathic Concern, and Personal Distress” (Vuoskoski 312). In this survey, 148 university students listened to 16 film music excerpts, each with a pre-determined, statistically proven emotional tone: scary, happy, sad, or tender (Vuoskoski 312). A correlation analysis “revealed that both Openness to Experience and global Empathy were significantly connected with liking for sad excerpts” (Vuoskoski 315). (Studies show that nostalgic music isn’t limited to sad music, but it is often sad music which elicits nostalgia.) Additional conclusions claimed that while sadness was the most frequent emotion evoked by the excerpts, “other emotions such as nostalgia, peacefulness, and wonder were also clearly evident” (Vuoskoski 311). Despite the sometimes sad way nostalgia is stimulated, this suggests that nostalgic music brings bout positive emotions. The peacefulness and wonder that nostalgia evokes appeals “most to those who have a heightened responsiveness to the experiences of others, who experience intense emotions in response to sad music, and who show enhanced sensitivity to art and beauty” (Vuoskoski 311). While nostalgia benefits empathetic, willing personalities more than others, it can enlighten others who practice empathy and openness.

However, nostalgia can damage some listeners, and cause them to become antisocial and worrisome. Because nostalgia is often stimulated by “sad” music, it has the potential to worsen the emotional mood of listeners. Frequent rumination is unhealthy and can develop into a dangerous, reclusive form of nostalgia: anticipatory nostalgia. It is commonly characterized as “missing aspects of the present before they are lost in the future” (“Anticipatory Nostalgia”). It’s the unsatisfied feeling that people experience while watching a sunset on vacation, an inability to appreciate current beauty because of looming responsibilities or problems. A four-part study, conducted by Dr. Batcho, made several conclusions on anticipatory nostalgia. The first portion included a survey, which asked respondents to rate “the extent to which they miss each of 20 items [on the survey] from when they were younger on a 9-point scale (1 = not at all, 9 = very much)” (“Anticipatory Nostalgia”). Survey items “[included] conceptual aspects such as ‘not knowing sad or evil things’ and concrete aspects such as ‘someone you loved’” (“Anticipatory Nostalgia”). The completion of this portion of the survey revealed an important distinction: “that anticipatory nostalgia is related to but distinguishable from personal nostalgia” (“Anticipatory Nostalgia”). Therefore, only anticipatory nostalgia can negatively affect mood; personal nostalgia can provide help instead of harm.

The third step in Batcho’s study examined the negative impact of anticipatory nostalgia, as compared to personal nostalgia. It specifically focused on “how anticipatory and personal nostalgia [relates] to the general impact of people and experiences on happiness, sadness, and worry” (“Anticipatory Nostalgia”). Participants in this study took a survey, as well as “estimated reactions to a hypothetical scenario, rated their tendency to be made happy, sad and worried, and wrote an essay from one of three-time perspectives” (“Anticipatory Nostalgia”). While comparisons to side studies of personal nostalgia found that it brought sadness but also encouraged engagement, this study concluded that “anticipatory nostalgia was associated with distancing to avoid future hurt and finding it difficult to enjoy the present” (“Anticipatory Nostalgia”). Overall, Batcho’s research concluded that anticipatory nostalgia can lead to emotional distancing, lack of appreciation for the present, and overall increased sadness and worry (“Anticipatory Nostalgia”). Nostalgia may often be stimulated by “sad” music, but this research found that “personal nostalgia predicted a tendency toward happiness” and anticipatory nostalgia is, “associated with a generalized tendency toward sadness” (“Anticipatory Nostalgia”). Thus, nostalgia does not have negative effects on mood, but it can if it develops into anticipatory nostalgia.

One recent study suggested that nostalgic thinking is additionally dangerous because it may cause depression relapse. Zindel V. Segal, a cognitive psychologist who specializes in depression and mindfulness-based cognitive therapy, conducted a study to examine the possible correlation between sad mood provocation and depression relapse. It was conducted in two phases. The first phase randomly assigned patients with major depressive disorder an antidepressant medication or cognitive behavior therapy (Segal et al). In the second phase, “patients who achieved clinical remission underwent sad mood provocation and were then observed with regular clinical assessments for 18 months” (Segal et al). Data analysis determined that “Regardless of type of prior treatment, the magnitude of mood-linked cognitive reactivity was a significant predictor of relapse over the subsequent 18 months” (Segal et al). “Cognitive reactivity” sounds neutral, but it actually defines a dangerous habit of increasing dysfunctional attitudes through certain moods. Thus, Segal’s study shows that moods can influence cognitive reactivity, and possibly indicate relapse. Because nostalgic music is often sad and turned to while people are in dysphoric states or bad moods, increased nostalgic thinking could raise the chances of relapse. However, it is important to clarify that if nostalgia could influence depression relapse, it would be through anticipatory nostalgia. Nostalgia can help a negative mood, but anticipatory nostalgia heightens bad moods, thus flaring cognitive reactivity and possibly causing depression relapse.

Unfortunately, when experiencing confusion or conflict, people can develop maladaptive coping styles. These coping styles, along with cognitive reactivity, can be influenced by nostalgia. As Doctor Sandra Garrido, a researcher specializing in depression and music discovered, nostalgia can have negative effects when it is used maladaptively. After conducting research to determine whether there were correlations between nostalgia, depression, rumination and reflection, Garrido “[tested] the affective outcomes of nostalgic remembering using both direct and implicit measures, as well as to explore further the influence of coping style and rumination.” Participants were tested by listening to a song they considered nostalgic. After listening, participants would fill out a survey which posed questions about their mood, how the music felt, and memories the music evoked. Results showed that nostalgia can be correlated with adaptive and maladaptive coping styles. Garrido’s conclusions also explained that “Where there are tendencies to clinical depression, nostalgic remembering may tend to exacerbate patterns of negative thinking resulting in less positive affective outcomes.” Nostalgia can be used adaptively as a healthy escape, or maladaptively, “by providing further escape from present reality” (Garrido).

While nostalgia can be used maladaptively, it can also offer positive rewards, such as emotional relaxation. Dr. Liila Taruffi, along with several other researchers, explored the reasoning of the appreciation of sad music. Through an online survey, they were able to prove that nostalgia is appealing because it offers four general rewards to people: playful imagination, emotional regulation, empathy, and no real-life consequences. Taruffi’s research consisted of an extensive online survey, presented to 772 Eastern and Western participants. It was “divided into seven sections…: (1) Core Details; (2) Musical Training and Musical Engagement; (3) Sad Music; (4) Principles Underlying the Evocation of Sadness by Music; (5) Rewarding Aspects of Music Evoked Sadness; (6) Favourite Sad Music; and (7) Personality Questionnaires” (Taruffi and Koelsch 3). The first two sections collected demographic data, determined musical background, and clarified musical preferences (Taruffi and Koelsch 3). The rest of the survey included sad music listening habits, common emotions evoked by music, personality and empathy traits, and a list of thirteen items with questions regarding the possible rewards of music-evoked sadness (Taruffi and Koelsch 3). In addition to discovering the four appeals of nostalgia, researchers were able to distinguish between the nostalgic effects of happy and sad music: Sad music has the potential to regulate negative moods and emotions, and provide consolation (Taruffi and Koelsch 10). To reiterate, nostalgic music can be happy, but “sad” music seems to have more benefits than happy nostalgia music (despite the proven increased relatability of optimistic nostalgic music). Furthermore, a follow-up survey conducted by Taruffi discovered that happy nostalgic music can only provide half of the rewards of nostalgia--playful imaginative experiences and emotional regulation (Taruffi and Koelsch 15). Sad music is even more efficient in regulating mood and providing consolation “when listeners are experiencing emotional distress” (Taruffi and Koelsch 15). This research proves that nostalgic music offers emotional rewards, but sad nostalgic music is more efficient in facilitating emotional healing.

In addition to instigating healing, nostalgia can stimulate autobiographical memories. Autobiographical memories are the core memories of an individual (Vanderveren). They contain personal experiences and specific moments that define who a person is. Personal identity is dependant on these memories, because “the personal information that is stored in these different hierarchical layers represents who we are, were, and can be in the future” (Vanderveren). Thus, autobiographical memories are important when people are seeking comfort or stability.

A study in 2016 tested the ability of nostalgia to prompt autobiographical memories. It required “175 participants [to enter] 3 songs that made them feel nostalgic into the Internet music site Pandora to create a personalized “station” of 7 similar songs” (Michels-Ratliff and Ennis 380). Participants chose to listen to music they considered nostalgic, to ensure that higher rates of nostalgia were induced. As a result of this self-selection, 72% of participants reported experiencing autobiographical memories while listening to their chosen music (Michels-Ratliff and Ennis 381). Nostalgia can awaken autobiographical memories, and bring closure and a renewed sense of confidence in times of transition.

Nostalgia, when used maladaptively, can damage self-esteem and possibly cause relapse in depression. Increased rumination, as instigated by nostalgia, can also lead to the development of anticipatory nostalgia. However, nostalgia can also provide a healthy escape for people. Its effectiveness in stimulating autobiographical renews confidence, increases empathy, and produces comfort. Millennials’ high instances of mental health problems are serious, but research shows that music-induced nostalgia is typically used productively to regulate emotions and transform bad moods into good. It is a powerful sentiment that, when utilized correctly, can provide a constant source of stability, peace, and encouragement to people who are struggling.

Works Cited

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